History of France

Progress in optics Thanks to the rediscovery of ancient works, or the discovery of the writings of Arab scholars, some sciences experienced great growth. This was the case with the optics. One of its applications would change the lives of many people: glasses. The first glasses are called vesicles, derived from beryl, the transparent gemstone then used for lenses. They had no branches, but the lens frames pivoted and pinched the nose to fix themselves. It is likely that the use of concave and convex lenses, which increased the possibilities of the human eye, is much older...

More efficient couplers Since the domestication of the horse, men knew that it was fast and stronger than the ox. However, this animal was rarely used for fieldwork, as the harness was not suitable for heavy pulling. The traditional harness consisted of a loose handcraft carried on the animal's neck. Also, the more the horse pulled, the more the tinker obstructed his breathing. In the early Middle Ages, the rigid collar harness was invented. This padded necklace rested on the horse's shoulders and did not interfere with his breathing...

Introduction For a long time, the Middle Ages were considered a dead era from the point of view of scientific development and technological progress. Today, on the contrary, it is recognized that the four or five centuries between the year 1000 and the invention of printing brought about profound transformations. Certainly, there were few spectacular discoveries or inventions, of those that opened new horizons for humanity, such as the invention, in the 18th century, of the steam engine or electricity...

Guilds and frairies Guilds had their own privileges and jurisdictions codified according to an officially recognized status. These included price-fixing, weights and measures and market monopoly. Some guilds were granted the right to mint their own currency, but these cases were rare and of short duration. In the context of the time, the guild was considered to be an authentic association of merchants and transporters on the same waterway, customers attracted from the same shopping center. The Guild...

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Military strategy In the Middle Ages, with the exception of Crecy, Bouvines or Azincourt, there were no great battles. The majority of military operations consist of avoiding tidy battle and confrontation in the open countryside. The majority of conflicts are only skirmishes or ambushes (albeit deadly), raids and operations that are relatively short but with relatively long journeys due to the slow progress of the armies. Often, in local conflicts, it was a question of putting your opponent in difficulty by weakening him militarily (loss of men, equipment...

When the Capetians ascended the throne their power was very limited, they did not control the entire kingdom but only the Ile de France region. They also had to ensure their heredity, but gradually the Capetians managed to restore royal authority and strengthen their power. For its part, the Church regained the spiritual monopoly of the West where the Manichean vision of the Devil and God has never been stronger. The vassal's oath to the lord "Everyone knows I have nothing to feed and clothe myself...

Shortly after the barbaric invasions, Rome's urban setting disappeared and gave way to fields, pastures, and forests. The principles of Roman urban culture had to adapt to this new change. Powerful Germanic tribes invaded Europe and settled there in the 3rd and 4th centuries of the Christian era. They brought new rules of conduct, new codes of ethics and a new way of accumulating and distributing wealth. A chaotic society The world had entered a new era filled with riddles and mysteries, it was dangerous to venture into the hostile forests where bandits had control...

Terrible period that this one, the great Roman Empire crumbled to disappear, the great emperors lost their panache. The Germanic tribes have expanded, they have pushed back the borders of the Empire. The Roman legions have lost their effectiveness in the face of barbaric fervor. This period is dark and enigmatic, the world is gradually entering the Middle Ages. Civilized Barbarians, the Frankish tribes moved at the same time as the Germans. The most active of them are the Riparian and Salian Franks...

Feudalism had made timid appearances in the first half of the eighth century, and now it is resurfacing with all its vigour at the beginning of the tenth century. At that time, the feudal vassal system predominated in Germany, England and much of France. A rigid system in which the peasant, serf of the glen, had to submit to the yoke of the earth. At the top reigned the great feudal lords, owners of immense territories and to whom other less well-off owners, the vassals, had to submit. Feudalism is a very local system that is almost independent of the outside world...