RJOAS June 2025
by Semerci Arif (Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Türkiye)
Paddy plant is an essential agricultural product both in the world and in Türkiye in terms of both nutrition and income it provides to producers. Çanakkale province, which is determined as the research area, ranks 4th with a share of approximately 10% in paddy cultivation areas and production amount throughout the country. In the study, the relationship between the use of pesticides and the amount of paddy production was examined with the help of the production function. In the study, agricultural pesticides used in paddy production were evaluated in 3 groups: herbicides, fungicides and insecticides. An average of 1.183 lt da-1 agricultural control pesticides were used in the enterprises examined within the scope of the research, and 0.909 lt da-1 of this amount was herbicides, 0.181 lt da-1 was fungicides and 0.093 lt da-1 was insecticides. Since in paddy production, weed control is predominantly at the forefront, 76.87% of the plant protection pesticides used are weed pesticides. In the paddy production estimation equation, the elasticity coefficients of pesticides were determined as fungicides (X1) 0.535, herbicides (X2) 0.324 and insecticides (X3) 0.205. Fungicides (X1) and herbicides (X2) were found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%, and insecticide drugs (X3) at the level of 5%. The sum of the coefficients of production elasticities of the estimation equation (∑βi 1.064) expresses the increasing return to the scale. According to the marginal efficiency coefficients, which are among the factors in the paddy production estimation equation, fungicides and insecticides are used below the economic optimum level, and herbicides are used above the economic optimum level. The research reveals that the use of fungicides and insecticides with a marginal efficiency coefficient above "1" in paddy production should be increased, and the level of herbicide use should be reduced. The present study showed that agricultural pesticides, which are used around 1.20 lt da-1 in paddy production in Türkiye, should be selected among the drugs that are more sensitive to the environment, that new generation pesticides should be emphasized and that care should be taken to use them at a level that could cause the least harm to the environment.
Paddy is a plant that grows in hot regions and is considered as a symbol of civilization in these regions, and its homeland is known as India (Özşahin, 2008; Pareja et al., 2011). A significant part of the world's population uses rice as the main source of nutrition. For 2.7 billion people, rice provides 50–60% of their daily caloric intake (Metwally et al. 2010; Chukwu et al. 2019).
According to FAO data in 2021, the world paddy production areas are 165 million ha and the production amount is 787 million tons. According to TSI data for 2022, the paddy production area in Türkiye has been determined as 120,511 ha and the production amount as 950,000 tons. While the paddy yield obtained from the unit area worldwide was 476.97 kg da-1, this value was 788.31 kg da-1 in Türkiye. Türkiye's self-sufficiency rate in rice is around 80%, and the supply gap is closed by imports. In this context, Türkiye has a share of 5.71% in world paddy imports (FAO, 2022).
Today, one of the most significant issues that many countries focus on is meeting the food needs of people. Since it is not possible to increase the amount of land, it is necessary to increase the amount of product obtained from the unit area by using modern techniques and inputs. Ways to increase the yield include irrigation, proper tillage, fertilization, breeding, proper harvesting, establishing producer associations, mechanization, as well as the application of modern plant protection methods. All processes carried out in order to economically protect plants from the damages of diseases, pests and weeds that limit plant production, and to increase agricultural production and improve its quality in this way are called "plant protection", in other words, "agricultural control".
Since no uneconomical practice has a place in modern plant protection, the aim of agricultural control today is to increase the product and quality within the limits of economy. As it is known, economy contains the most essential values of our age. In addition to protecting the environment and health, the concept of economy in modern plant protection also includes the prevention of new issues, such as new pests, disease or weed species, the emergence of pesticide-resistant individuals, and even the prevention of residue problems in the export of agricultural products with conscious and controlled practices (Kadıoğlu, 2012).
Many methods are used in plant production within the scope of plant protection activities. However, while carrying out agricultural activities in harmony with nature, it is a significant phenomenon to avoid the negative effects of plant diseases and pests with integrated agricultural control. Integrated agricultural control, in its simplest and shortest form, could be defined as "to protect plants effectively from the effects of diseases, pests and weeds, and to minimize the negative effects on the environment and human health by using all known methods in agricultural control together and in a balanced way as much as possible" (Delen et al., 2005).
Pesticides are widely used in agricultural production to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds and other plan pathogens in an effort to reduce or eliminate yield losses and maintain high produce quality (Fuad et al., 2012). A pesticide is any substance comprising an active ingredient or any preparation, combination, or material with one or more active compounds as one of its elements (Nizam et al., 2023).
In Southeast Asia, such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam, pesticides are frequently employed in agricultural sectors, including rice cultivation, to control pests, disease vectors, and weeds (Fuad et al., 2012). The employment of pesticides is recommended as the rice-cultivation environment is conducive to the growth of disease-causing pathogens, insects, weeds, and fungi (Jafar et al., 2013; Satpathy et al., 2020)
Each regularly utilized pesticide might possess various applications. For instance, fungicides prevent fungal issues, herbicides hinder the growth of weeds, and insecticides kill insects and discourage their presence (Melnikov, 2012). Pesticides could also be classified in several other ways, but the most frequent of which is based on their chemical makeup (Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020).
Agricultural pesticides may also pose a danger to human health. Pesticide related health symptoms that were associated with pesticide use include skin problems and neurological system disturbances – dizziness and headache (Alavanja et al., 2004; Ntow et al., 2006; Ngowi et al., 2007).
Diseases and pests could cause significant damage to the paddy plant. A significant finding was made in a study conducted in India on the same subject: "The crop is damaged by more than 100 species of insect pests of which about dozen are of significance. The state loses 30 per cent yield every year on this account. However, out of all inputs, pesticides play a key role in increasing agriculture production by controlling agriculture pests and diseases. It has been observed that about one third of reliable global output is estimated to be lost due to insect pests, disease and weeds" (Atwal, 1986).
Experiments with the intensive use of pesticides have shown that the yield potential of rice varieties in Asia is about 10 t ha-1 (Peng et al. 2000). One recent study has revealed that between 120 and 200 million tons of grain are lost yearly to insects, diseases, and weeds in rice fields in tropical Asia (Willocquet et al., 2004). The mean region-wide rice yield loss due to pests was estimated as 37% (Savary et al., 2000).
Collectively, rice diseases result in yield reductions of 10-15% in tropical Asia (Savary et al., 2000). Sheath blight and blast are present wherever rice is grown; these two diseases are responsible for losses of 5% or more each. A survey of rice fields in tropical Asia determined that weeds were the most significant pest factor in reducing yields: rice yields were being reduced by 23% because of weeds growing above the rice canopy and by 21% due to weeds growing below the rice canopy (figures are not additive, but considered individually) (Savary et al., 2000). In India, annual loss in rice due to weeds has been estimated as 15 million tons (Ghosh et al., 2004). On average, the gap in rice yields in farmers' fields due to poor weed control in Bangladesh was determined to be between 43-51%. The yield gap was as high as 1 t ha-1 with 30% of farmers losing in excess of 500 kg ha-1 (Ahmed et al., 2001). On average, the gap in rice yields in farmers' fields due to poor weed control in Bangladesh was determined to be between 43-51%. The yield gap was as high as 1 t ha-1 with 30% of farmers losing in excess of 500 kg ha-1 (Ahmed et al. 2001).
Rice losses to insect pests are low in tropical Asia. Among the insects, only damage by stem borers appear to be of relevance (2.3%) (Savary et al., 2000). Introduction of new selective insecticides non-toxic to natural enemies has improved the management of rice insect pests (Kumar et al., 2010). Insecticide testing for stemborer control continues to show large increases in rice yield (+70%) (Chatterjee and Mondal, 2014).
Chemical pest control is the most preferred method in the struggle against diseases, pests and weeds that affect yield and quality in agricultural production, which is one of these problems experienced in agricultural production today. In 2022, 55,374 tons of pesticides were used in Türkiye. The use of pesticides in Türkiye is 0.226 lt da-1 per unit area, which is quite low compared to developed countries. The use of pesticides in agricultural production in the world was 3.5 million tons of active substances in 2021, and the total pesticide trade was 7.1 million tons of formulated products and a total value of 43.2 billion USD (Erdoğan, 2024).
Having examined the studies on the subject in detail, it is understood that there are very few studies based on functional analysis to reveal the importance of agricultural control practices in paddy production (Alipour et al., 2012; Addison et al., 2016; Yuan and Peng, 2017; Rao et al., 2018; Adewumi et al., 2023).
The low cost of products in agricultural production makes countries advantageous in the trade of agricultural products. In order to be in the group of countries with advantages in product cost, it is obligatory to make production in irrigated areas, to use qualified seeds, and to give the plant as many nutrients as the plant needs and when the plant needs. However, if agricultural control practices cannot be done adequately in crop production, farmers must settle or endure a much smaller amount of product than desired. The general opinion is that the amount of product received by the producers in agricultural production consists of the sum of the residues left over from disease and pest destruction. For this reason, the lack or delay of agricultural control practices in crop production causes loss of yield and income in production.
Today, no matter what agricultural production activity we are engaged in, the economically efficient and effective use of the inputs (natural resources, labor and capital) used in production is extremely important. Because the effective use of resources not only decreases the cost of the product, but also increases the product income and increases the competitiveness of agricultural enterprises.
In addition to the amount of agricultural pesticides used per unit area in plant production, the effective use of plant protection pesticides used is also important. In other words, the ratio of the unit price (factor price or marginal cost) of the last unit of agricultural pesticide used in production to the monetary value of the increase in total production of the agricultural pesticide used shows the marginal efficiency level of the agricultural control pesticide used.
In this study, the use of pesticides in paddy production in Türkiye was investigated in the context of the concept of efficiency. In the study, the relationship between the amount of paddy production and the levels of use of pesticides including fungicides (fight against diseases), insecticides (fight against pests) and herbicides (fight against weeds) used in different developmental periods of paddy production was analyzed functionally.
Within the scope of the study, marginal efficiency coefficients were calculated for each agricultural pesticide groups with the help of marginal product value and factor price, and the findings were analyzed in comparison with other research findings on the subject.
In this section, some of the significant studies related to agricultural struggle in paddy production have been briefly mentioned. The comparative analyzes of the findings obtained from this and similar studies carried out with the research results are given in detail in the relevant section of this study.
Semerci (1998) in his research conducted with 97 farmers in Edirne province in Türkiye, examined the effect of the use of pesticides on the production value and production amount in paddy.
Gaytancıoğlu and Sürek (2001) conducted a study on the amounts used and recommended to be used per unit area in the fight against weeds in paddy production in their carried out with 294 producers in Türkiye.
Nimoh et al. (2012) functionally examined the effect of pesticide use on the amount of production in paddy production in Ghana. In the study, the elasticity coefficient and significance level of the pesticide were determined. Shantha et al. (2012) carried out a detailed cost analysis of paddy production in their research which was conducted with 158 farmers in Sri Lanka. In this study, the relationships between 6 production factors used in paddy production and the amount of paddy production were functionally examined.
In a study conducted with 200 producers in Vietnam, Long et al. (2013) examined the cost of paddy production. Within the scope of the study, the elasticity coefficients of 6 variables in the paddy production estimation function were calculated and their importance levels were determined. The results obtained in the study were evaluated in 2 groups as winter-spring and summer-autumn period according to the paddy production season.
In the study conducted by Reddy and Reddy (2013) in India, the marginal efficiency coefficients of the inputs used in paddy production for 3 different enterprise sizes (small, medium and large) in 4 different settlements were calculated and interpreted. Shende and Bagde (2013) investigated the level of input use and product cost in paddy production in a study conducted with 60 farmers in India. In the study, the elasticity coefficients and marginal efficiency coefficients of the production factors were calculated and interpreted.
Kadiri et al. (2014) investigated the cost factors in paddy production in detail in a study conducted in Nigeria with 300 farmers. In the study, the relationships between the amount of paddy production and the size of the enterprise, seed costs, family and foreign labor costs, chemical fertilizer costs and agricultural control costs were analyzed using 4 different production functions. In the study conducted in Indonesia by Riyan et al. (2014), the effect of the amount of seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and labor factors used in per unit area on the amount of paddy production was examined with the help of the production function.
In the study conducted by Abiola et al. (2016) in Malaysia, the effectiveness of the level of pesticide use in paddy production was examined. In the study, the elasticity coefficients and importance levels of agricultural pesticide and herbicide factors were determined, and the marginal efficiency coefficients of the factors were calculated and interpreted.
In the survey conducted with 2019 farmers in Nigeria by Ajoma et al. (2016), the effects of the factors involved in paddy production on the amount of paddy production were analyzed with the help of the production function. In the study, the elasticity coefficients and significance levels of the inputs used in production and the marginal efficiency coefficients were calculated. Kaka et al. (2016) carried out a study in Malaysia with 397 producers and came up with the finding that there were 5 independent variables in the paddy production function. The elasticity coefficient of the pesticide variable in the paddy production function was determined and interpreted.
In the research conducted with 217 farmers in Nigeria by Ogbc et al. (2017), seed, fertilizer, agrochemical, land and labor factors used in paddy production were evaluated in 2 groups according to "Rice Production Ecologies".
In the study conducted in Indonesia by Ida and Azhar (2018), the effect of pesticide use on the amount of paddy production was examined. For this purpose, the elasticity coefficient and marginal efficiency coefficient of the pesticide were determined. In the study conducted in Indonesia by Pudaka et al. (2018), the effect of the level of pesticide use on the amount of paddy production was investigated. In the study, the elasticity coefficient and significance level of the pesticide were determined.
In a study conducted with 240 farmers in Iraq by Al-Mashadani et al. (2019), the amount of inputs used in paddy production was examined. In the study, the elasticity coefficients and significance levels of the factors affecting paddy production were determined. Together with this, in the same study, the marginal efficiency coefficients of the factors used in paddy production were calculated and interpreted.
In the study conducted with 125 farmers in India by Kumar and Singh (2019), the cost of paddy crop, including the cost of agricultural control and pesticide costs in paddy production, was examined in detail. In the study, the determination coefficient (R2) of the production function prepared for paddy production, the elasticity coefficient and importance level of the pesticide factor were determined. In the research, the marginal efficacy coefficient of the pesticide factor was also calculated.
Purba et al. (2020), in their study conducted with 93 producers in Indonesia, carried out a technical efficiency analysis of paddy production. In the study, 9 factors that affect paddy production were analyzed in detail. In the study conducted with 240 producers in Cambodia by Sary et al. (2020), the amount of input use in paddy production was examined in detail, the determination coefficient of the estimation equation was calculated, and the effects of factors on the production amount were examined by using elasticity coefficients.
Yusuf et al. (2020) carried out a cost analysis in paddy production in 4 settlements in the research conducted with 203 producers in Indonesia. In the study, the share of the total cost of pesticides and pest control labor costs used in the settlements in the cost of paddy production is given in detail at the monetary and proportional level.
In the research conducted with 88 producers in Indonesia by Ginting and Andari (2021), the relationship between the amount of paddy production and the seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and labor factors used in production was analyzed with the help of production function. In the study conducted in Indonesia by Juliatmaja et al. (2021), the effect of production area, workforce, urea fertilizer, NPK fertilizer, pesticide and seed inputs on the amount of paddy production was examined with the help of production function.
In the research conducted with 370 producers in India by Lone et al. (2021), the elasticity coefficients of the production factors were calculated and interpreted and in the same study, the labor factor and farm manure factor and agricultural pesticides and chemical fertilizers were evaluated as a single factor in paddy production.
In the study conducted with 200 farmers in Bangladesh by Billah (2022), the elasticity coefficients and importance levels regarding the costs of the inputs used in paddy production were determined. In the research conducted in India by Lamani and Thimmaiah (2022), the inputs used in paddy production were revealed in terms of both quantity and monetary size. In the study, the cost of the inputs used in paddy production is given in detail. In the research, seed, chemical fertilizer, pesticide and labor factors that are effective in paddy production were analyzed with the help of production function. In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficients of the factors involved in production were calculated, and the results obtained were analyzed and interpreted in comparison with other research findings.
In the study conducted in Nigeria by Adewumi et al. (2023), the effect of the use of pesticides on paddy production in enterprises using and not using UDP Technology was determined by functional method. For this purpose, the elasticity coefficient and importance level of agricultural pesticide use level were determined for each group in the study, and the difference between the groups was explained. In the research conducted with 202 farmers in Indonesia by Djafar et al. (2023), 5 factors that are effective in paddy production were analyzed with the help of production function. Within the scope of the study, the elasticity coefficient and marginal efficiency coefficient were calculated and interpreted for each factor in the estimation equation created regarding the factors used in paddy production.
In the research conducted with 60 producers in India by Jayaprada et al. (2023), the cost of paddy production, including pesticides, was examined in detail and the values of all factors involved in production were given in monetary and proportional terms. In the research conducted with 100 producers in India by Kumar et al. (2023), the shares of inputs used in paddy production in product cost are given in detail on the basis of small, medium and large scale enterprise groups.
In the study conducted with 45 farmers in Indonesia by Laksono et al. (2023), the effect of land area, workforce, seeds, fertilizer and pesticide factors on paddy production was analyzed. In the study conducted with 50 producers in India by Raj et al. (2023), the factors used in paddy production were analyzed functionally. Elasticity coefficients and importance levels were determined for the 6 factors determined in the study, and the marginal efficiency coefficients of the factors were calculated and interpreted.
In the study conducted with 374 producers in Indonesia by Sefrianti et al. (2023), the efficiency of production factors in paddy production was examined by using the production function. There are 9 production factors in the rice production estimation equation and the elasticity coefficient of each production factor is determined and interpreted. In the study conducted in India by Singh et al. (2023), the relationship between the monetary value of the inputs used in paddy production and paddy income was functionally analyzed. Within the scope of the research, the elasticity coefficient, importance level and marginal efficiency coefficients of the agricultural pesticide were determined.
In the study conducted in Indonesia by Suswadi et al. (2023), the effect of 2 different pesticide groups used in paddy production on the amount of paddy production was investigated. In this context, elasticity coefficients and significance levels were examined for both agricultural pesticide groups. In the research conducted with 100 producers in India by Tiwari and Mishra (2023), the elasticity coefficients of 6 factors involved in production together with agricultural pesticides were calculated and interpreted in the estimation equation prepared for paddy production.
In the study conducted in Türkiye by Yüzbaşioğlu and Abaci (2023), the share of pesticide use in paddy production in the product cost was examined. Within the scope of the research, the effect of agricultural pesticide on the amount of paddy production was analyzed with the help of elasticity coefficient by using the production function.
In the study conducted in Pakistan by Abbas et al. (2024), the cost of the product in paddy, which includes the cost of pesticides and the cost of spraying labor for conventional rice varieties and hybrid varieties was calculated, and the differences determined for both groups were examined.
In the research conducted with 120 farmers in Nepal by Bhatt et al. (2024), the cost factors in paddy production in two different periods were discussed in detail. In the study, the factors affecting paddy production were analyzed with the help of production function. In the study conducted with 315 producers in Nigeria by Obiekwe et al. (2024), the cost factors in paddy production were examined in detail. In the research, the effect of socio-economic factors on the amount of paddy production was functionally examined.
The primary data of the study consists of the data compiled from the agricultural enterprises producing paddy in the province of Çanakkale in the Marmara Region of Türkiye. Within the scope of the research, face-to-face surveys were conducted in the January-February period of the year 2019. The secondary data of the research include; Data published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and the Turkish Statistical Institute (TSI). In the study, publications of various institutions and organizations at national and international scale, researches and theses on paddy production were referred to.
The formula proposed by Neyman was used to determine the number of surveys applied in the study (Yamane, 2010).
The degree of freedom in the distribution chart (N-1) and the "t" value of a certain confidence limit (Erkan and Çiçek, 1996).
In order to determine the number of paddy production enterprises to be included in the sampling framework, data from Çanakkale Provincial Directorate of Agriculture and Forestry 2018 Farmer Registration System (FRS) were used. According to the data of the same year, it is understood that paddy production is carried out in an area of 65,000 da in 865 agricultural enterprises throughout the province. Within the scope of the research, a survey was applied to 74 agricultural enterprises with a 99% confidence interval and a 5% deviation from the average.
In the study, "Cobb-Douglas Type Function" was used to determine the relationships between the amount of paddy production and the inputs used in production (Zoral, 1984; Miller, 2008).
In marginal analyses, the price formed in the free market in the average paddy sales price of the enterprises and the rate (1.13) found by adding the interest rate (13%) applied by Ziraat Bank to crop production in 2018 on top of 1 TL were taken into account as factor cost (Yılmaz and Yurdakul, 2000). In the research conducted, the USD/TL parity was taken into account as 1 US$ = 5.51 TL (CBRT, 2024). The sales price of paddy in 2018 was calculated as 2.92 TL = 0.53 USD. Within the scope of the study, for paddy production; Geometric Mean Values (GMV), Marginal Product (MP), Marginal Income (MI), Marginal Cost (MC) and Marginal Efficiency Coefficients (MEC) were calculated and interpreted.
In the study, the Cobb-Douglas type function was used to determine the relationships between the amount obtained from paddy production and the herbicides, fungicides and insecticides used in production (Doll and Orazem 1984; Beattie and Taylor 1987; Neill, 2002). Literature reviews indicate that this type of function is suitable for functional analyses of agricultural production activities (Heady and Dillon, 1966; Özcelik, 1989).
Multiple regression (R) and coefficient of determination (R2), elasticity coefficients (βi), standard errors (seβi) and significance levels (tβi), geometric means of the variables (XiG, YG), simple correlation coefficients (rij) and standard deviation (S) and significance level (F value) of the equation which belong to the regression equation of paddy production were determined as a result of regression analysis performed with the help of an appropriate statistical package program. Regarding the estimation equation in the study; Coefficient of Determination (R2), Significance Test of Partial Correlation Coefficients (bi), Autocorrelation and Multicollinearity tests were also performed.
Geometric means are used in the Cobb-Douglas type model. The equation used in the calculation of marginal revenue (MR-) for any production input (Xi) is given below (Karagölge, 1973; Singh et al., 2004; Mobtaker et al., 2010; Rafiee et al., 2010).
Multiplying the marginal yield by the product price gives the Marginal Income. In this case, the jth factor of production is used in such a way as to maximize profit or in the most economical way.
Marginal Efficiency Coefficients (MEC-), which are found by dividing marginal revenues by factor prices, express which factor is used effectively, and which factor is used more or less economically. The equation used to calculate the marginal efficiency coefficient is shown below (Singh et al., 2004; Mobtaker et al., 2010; Rafiee et al., 2010).
The following rules have been taken into account in the interpretation of the calculated marginal activity coefficients for production factors (Taru et al., 2008; Semerci, 2012, 2013):
- If MEC = 1 (MR=MC), the factor is used effectively;
- If MEC > 1, factor is used less and should be increased (MR>MC);
- If MEC < 1, the factor is overused and should be reduced (MR<MC).
The data of 74 paddy production enterprises identified with the help of sampling formula were compiled. It was determined that herbicides were used in 73 (10,211 da), fungicides in 54 (7,767 da) and insecticides in 40 enterprises (5,193 da).
Within the scope of the research, both fungicides, herbicides and insecticides were used in paddy production in 35 farms. For this reason, within the scope of the research, the relationships between the amount of paddy production and the amount of use of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides were analyzed using the Cobb-Douglas production function with the help of data obtained from a total of 35 enterprises (4,632 da) using fungicides, herbicides and insecticides in paddy production in Çanakkale province (Neill, 2002). The variables that take place in the paddy production function in the study are as given below:
- Y = Paddy production amount (kg enterprise-1): Total amount of paddy production per enterprise.
The independent variables in the function are given below:
- X1 = Use of fungicide (lt enterprise -1);
- X2 = Use of herbicide medication (lt enterprise -1);
- X3 = Use of insecticide (lt enterprise -1).
It is reported that the number of harmful insect species in the world is approximately 1,500, of which only 500 are economically harmful. It is recorded that the number of harmful insect species in Türkiye is about 240 (Yıldırım, 2012). More than 70 species of insects’ damage paddy and cause large reductions in crop yields of up to 20-50% (Nguyen et al., 2007). The number of plants described as weeds is approximately 8,000. The most dangerous 200 weed species are included in 62 plant families. Of these, the Poaceae family contains the highest number of species (Zengin, 2001).
Cultural and chemical control methods are used in the fight against diseases, pests and weeds in paddy. Chemical control is widely used due to its ease of application and effective results in a short time. As a result of unconscious and excessive use of pesticides; problems such as deterioration of natural balance, diseases, increasing of resistance of pests and weeds, residues in agricultural products and environmental pollution arise (GTHB, 2017).
In paddy production, it is necessary to fight against various diseases, pests and weeds. For this reason, more intensive pesticides are used in paddy production compared to other field crops. The enterprises within the scope of the research used a total of 11.164,285 liters of pesticides in paddy production. Of the 74 farms examined, herbicides were used in 10,211 da of fields, fungicides in 7,767 da of fields and insecticides in 5,193 da of fields out of a total paddy production area of 10,461 da (Table 1).
An average of 1.183 liters of agricultural pesticides were used per decare in the examined enterprises, 0.909 lt of this amount was herbicides, 0.181 liters was fungicides and 0.093 liters was insecticides. In other words, 76.87% of the plant protection pesticides used in paddy production are herbicides.
Within the scope of the research, the effects of the use of pesticides on the amount of paddy production were examined. In this context, there are 35 enterprises that use all herbicides, fungicides and insecticides. The total amount of pesticides used in paddy production in these enterprises was calculated as 5.943,225 liters (Table 2).
The number of enterprises using all types of pesticides specified in Table 2 is 35 and the area where pesticides are used is 4,632 da. The use of pesticides per decare in these enterprises is 1,283 lt, and the highest share among the medication groups belongs to weed pesticides with 79.04%.
Paddy is susceptible to a large number of diseases and insect pests which cause heavy losses (Kumar and Singh, 2019). For this reason, significant amounts of pesticides are used in paddy production. In this section, a brief summary of the levels of pesticide use in paddy production determined in the literature is given.
Gaytancıoğlu and Sürek (2001) conducted a study on the amounts used and recommended to be used per unit area in the fight against weeds in paddy production with 294 producers in Türkiye and they defined the effective substances of these medication as follows: Molinate 0.802 lt da-1 (recommended 0.500 lt da-1), thiobencarb 0.628 lt da-1 (recommended 0.500 lt da-1, - 0.800 lt da-1) and propanil 1.656 lt da-1 (recommended 0.900 lt da-1 - 1.545 lt da-1).
In the research conducted with 127 producers in Iran by Alipour et al. (2012), it was reported that an average of insecticides 0.202 lt da-1, fungicides 0.057 lt da-1, herbicides 0.182 lt da-1 were used per unit area in paddy production.
In the study conducted by Long et al. (2013), the use of plant protection chemical in paddy production was determined as 0.330 kg da-1 in W inter-spring period and 0.390 kg da-1 in summer-autumn period. In the research conducted by Shende and Bagde (2013), the use of pesticide in paddy production was calculated as 0.290 kg-lt da-1, including powder / granules 0.155 kg da-1, liquid 0.135 lt da-1.
In a study conducted with 150 producers in Ghana by Addison et al. (2016), the use of pesticides in paddy production was determined as 0.721 lt da-1. In the study conducted in China in 2015 by Yuan and Peng (2017), insecticide use was determined as 0.160 lt da-1, herbicide use as 0.0425 lt da-1, fungicide use as 0.0240 lt da-1 in paddy production in Huanghuazhan settlement. The specified values in the settlement of Yangliangyou are as the following; The use of insecticides was determined as 0.310 lt da-1, herbicide use as 0.043 lt da-1, fungicide use as 0.094 lt da-1.
In the research conducted in India by Rao et al. (2018), it was determined that farmers used 0.310 lt da-1 chemicals in paddy production. In the study conducted by Al-Mashadani et al.(2019), it was stated that 1.48 lt da-1 agricultural pesticide was used in paddy production.
In the study conducted by Purba et al.(2020), it was determined that 0.690 lt of da-1 herbicide, 0.641 lt of da-1 insecticide, 0.599 lt of da-1 fungicide were used in paddy production. In the study conducted by Sary et al. (2020), it was determined that although it varies between 0.393 lt da-1 – 0.650 lt da-1, an average of 0.447 lt da-1 pesticide, although it varies between 0.192 lt da-1 – 0.240 lt da-1, an average of 0.217 lt da-1 herbicide is used in paddy production. In the study conducted by Lamani and Thimmaiah (2022), the amount of agricultural pesticide use has been determined as: powder as 0.261 kg da-1 and liquid as 0.552 lt da-1.
In the research conducted with 337 manufacturers in Nigeria by Adewumi et al. (2023), the differences between enterprises using and not using UDP technology and the efficiency of the use of inputs were examined with the help of the production function. The use of Urea Deep Placement (UDP) technology to boost nitrogen availability, a key ingredient in rice production, was introduced to rice farmers in selected Northern Nigerian states. In the study, the herbicide usage level was determined as 0.1460 lt da-1 in the enterprises using UDP technology, and the herbicide use was determined as 1.260 lt da-1 in the enterprises not using this technology.
In the study conducted by Laksono et al.(2023), it was reported that although the amount of agricultural pesticides used in paddy production varies between 0.05 lt da-1 – 0.150 lt da-1, an average of 0.100 lt da-1 is used. In the study, it was stated that the amount of pesticides used per unit area in paddy production was below the recommended values of 0.300 -0.350 lt da-1.
In the research conducted, it was determined that the producers used an average of 6 pesticides per enterprise in paddy production. In agricultural pesticide applications, the labor cost has been determined as 5.94 USD da-1, the cost of agricultural pesticide as 16.63 USD da-1, and the total cost of agricultural pesticide cost and pesticide labor as 22.57 USD da-1. The total of variable costs in paddy production is 208.86 USD da-1 and the share of agricultural pesticide cost and total cost of spraying labor has been determined as 10.80%. The product cost in paddy production is 290.62 USD da-1 and the share of agricultural pesticide cost and total cost of spraying labor is 7.76%. Other research findings on the subject are given below.
In their study, Long et al. (2013), calculated the share of agricultural pesticide cost in paddy production cost as 18.98% in winter-spring period and 16.89% in summer-autumn period.
In the study conducted by Shende and Bagde (2013), the share of pesticide cost in paddy production cost was determined as 3.55%. In the research conducted with the producers in India by Kumar and Singh (2019) , the costs of pesticides and spraying costs in paddy production accounted for 6.37% of the cost of paddy crop. In the study conducted byMishra et al. (2020) in India, the share of agricultural pesticide cost in paddy production cost was determined as 2.12%.
In their study, Yusuf et al. (2020) found that the share of pesticide cost and spraying cost in paddy production was 19.28% in Bunga Raya, 14.80% in Sabak Auh, 12.88% in Sungai Apit and 11.46% in Sungai Mandau.
In the study conducted by Lamani and Thimmaiah (2022), the share of pesticide cost in the cost of paddy product was found to be as 6.37%. In the study conducted in India by Jayaprada et al. (2023) , the share of pesticides in the cost of paddy production was found to be as 6.63%.
In the study conducted in India by Kumar et al. (2023), the share of the cost of agricultural pesticide used in paddy production in the product cost was determined as 2.12% in small enterprises, 2.15% in medium-sized enterprises, 2.10% in large enterprises, and 2.13% in the average of enterprises. In their study conducted in Türkiye, Yuzbasioglu and Abaci (2023) reported that the cost of agricultural control in paddy production constitutes 14.54% of variable costs and 12.18% of product cost.
In the study conducted in Pakistan by Abbas et al. (2024), agricultural pesticide and spraying costs in paddy production were determined as 4.64% for conventional rice varieties and 4.29% for hybrid varieties. In the study conducted by Bhatt et al. (2024), the share of agricultural pesticide cost in paddy production among product cost was determined as 0.37% for main season rice and 1.88% for spring rice. In the research conducted by Obiekwe et al. (2024), the share of agricultural pesticide cost used in paddy production among the total product cost was determined as 10.80%.
The share of pesticides and pesticide costs in paddy production in this study has been determined as lower than the values calculated by Long et al. (2013), Yüzbaşioğlu and Abaci (2023), Yusuf et al. (2020) and Obiekwe et al. (2024), and it has been found as higher than the values calculated by Shende and Bagde (2013), Kumar and Singh (2019), Mishra et al. (2020), Lamani and Thimmaiah (2022), Jayaprada et al. (2023), Kumar et al. (2023) and Abbas et al. (2024).
As a result of the econometric analysis made using the data obtained from 74 paddy production enterprises determined according to the sampling method in Çanakkale province.
Multiple correlation and determination coefficients of equation (F calc. > F table) has been found to be significant at 1% probability level (Table 1). The calculated coefficient of determination for the obtained function shows that approximately 91% of the changes in the amount of paddy production could be expressed by the independent variables in the model and that the chosen model is appropriate. The existence of autocorrelation in the equation created in the study was tested by applying the "Durbin Watson (DW) Test", and the positive autocorrelation test was applied because the DW calculation of the equation was calculated as (4 - 2.361)= 1.639). As a result of the test, it was understood that there was no positive correlation for function (DWh 1.639> DWU (0.01) 1.439) (Tables 3 and 4).
In the estimation equation obtained, the production elasticity coefficients of all agricultural pesticides used are positively signed (Table 5).
The sum of the production elasticities of the factors involved in the function (∑βi) is 1.064. This situation refers to the increasing return to the scale in paddy production. In short, theoretically, when the amount of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides used in paddy production is increased by 1%, the amount of production is expected to increase, albeit by a little over 1%.
The production elasticity coefficients of fungicides and herbicides involved in the function were found to be significant at the level of 1% and insecticide drugs at the level of 5% probability. From a theoretical point of view, it could be said that a 1% increase in fungicide used in paddy production gives an increase of 0.535% in production and a 1% increase in herbicide will increase paddy production by 0.324% and a 1% increase in insecticide will increase production by 0.205%.
In the study, the marginal product values and marginal efficiency coefficients of the production factors that are effective in the amount of paddy production are given in Table 6.
As could be seen from the examination of Table 6, the highest marginal efficiency coefficient among the inputs used in paddy production belongs to the fungicide (X1). This variable is followed by insecticide (X3) and herbicide (X2), respectively. In determining the marginal product values, factor prices which are 1 TL more than the normal interest rate have been taken into account (Rehber and Erkuş, 1984; Çelik and Bayramoğlu, 2007; Vural and Turhan, 2011). According to the marginal efficiency coefficients, fungicide and insecticide drugs are used below the economic optimum level (xj>1), and herbicide drug is used above the economic optimum (xj<1). For this reason, it is necessary to increase the use of fungicides and insecticides with a marginal efficiency coefficient above "1", and to reduce the level of herbicide use. In other words, it is necessary be careful to select agricultural pesticides, which are consumed around 1.2 lt da-1 in production, among the more environmentally friendly drugs and to use them at a level that can cause the least harm to the environment.
In some studies, on paddy production, the relationships between the amount of production and the amount of pesticide use were examined with the help of the Cobb-Douglas production function. In this section, the findings obtained in the other studies on the same subject are given in general terms and these research findings are compared.
In a study involving 97 producers in Edirne, the effect of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, number of parcels, educational status and tractor power factors on the production amount was analyzed using the Cobb-Douglas production function. The elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide variable in the function was 0.13 and was found to be significant at the level of 1%. It was concluded that agricultural pesticides were used excessively in the function obtained (Semerci, 1998).
In the study involving 70 paddy producers in Ghana, researchers aimed to determine the effect of 5 different variables on the amount of paddy production. In the estimation equation, only the chemical pesticide use variable had a negative character (-0.2922) and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1% (Nimoh et al., 2012). In the estimation equation prepared in the study of Shantha et al. (2012), the elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide used in paddy production was calculated as -0.156 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%.
In the study conducted by Long et al.(2013), the elasticity coefficients and significance levels for chemical plant protection in the production function in paddy production and their significance leveles were found to be 0.084 (sign. 5%) in winter-spring period and as 0.167 in the summer-autumn period (sign. 1%. In the study, the elasticity coefficients and significance levels forchemical plant protection in the cost function were found as follows: 0.182 (non sign.) in the winter-spring period and 0.754 (sign.%5) in the summer-autumn period.
In the study conducted by Reddy and Reddy (2013), the marginal elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide factor used in paddy production was determined as -8.06, 6.07, 5.62 in in small, medium and large enterprises in Kaligiri Mandal settlement, respectively and as 4.57, 16.95, 18.39 in Muttukur Mandal settlement while in Pellakur Mandal settlement as 0.36, 2.26, 1.66, respectively.
In the study conducted by Shende and Bagde (2013), the elasticity coefficient of the pesticides factor in the estimation equation of paddy production was calculated as 0.029 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%. The marginal efficiency coefficient of the pesticides factor was determined as 0.515, which indicates that the pesticide factor is overused in paddy production and should be reduced.
In the study conducted by Kadiri et al. (2014), the elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide factor in the estimation equation for paddy production was calculated as -0.103 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%.
In the study conducted by Riyan et al. (2014), the elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide factor in the function of paddy production was calculated as 0.279 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%.
In the study involving 396 paddy producers in Ghana, researchers aimed to determine the effect of 5 different variables on the amount of paddy production. Among the variables in the study using the Cobb-Douglas production function, the elasticity coefficient of the pesticide factor was 0.068 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%, and the elasticity coefficient of the herbicide input was 0.095 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%. In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficient of pesticide and herbicide variables was calculated as 1.12 and 1.53, respectively (Abiola et al., 2016). In the study conducted by Addison et al. (2016), the elasticity coefficient of the pesticide variable in paddy production was 0.712 and was found to be statistically insignificant.
In the study conducted by Ajoma et al. (2016), the elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide factor in the paddy production estimation equation was 0.021 and was not found to be statistically significant. In the study, the elasticity coefficient of the herbicide factor was 0.085 and it was found to be statistically significant at the level of 10%. The marginal efficiency coefficient was 223.12 for the pesticide factor and 194.05 for the herbicide factor, and the calculated values show that the pesticide and herbicide factors were used less in paddy production, and the amount of the use of these factors should be increased in order to reach the economic optimum point. In the study conducted by Kaka et al.(2016), the elasticity coefficient calculated for herbicide in paddy production function was 0.339 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%.
In the study conducted by Ogbc et al. (2017), the elasticity coefficient of agrochemical in the "deep water" group was calculated as 0.151 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%. In the study, the elasticity coefficient of the agrochemical factor in the "upland pooled" group was found to be statistically insignificant.
In the study involving 159 paddy producers in Indonesia, the effect of 5 different variables on the amount of paddy production was aimed to be determined. The elasticity coefficient of the pesticide factor in the study using the Cobb-Douglas production function was 1.073 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficient of the pesticide input was determined as 6.04 (Ida and Azhar, 2018).
In the study involving 100 paddy producers in Indonesia, the effect of 5 different variables on the amount of paddy production was examined. In the study, the elasticity coefficient of the pesticide variable in the function was 3.501 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1% (Pudaka et al., 2018).
In the study conducted by Al-Mashadani et al. (2019), the elasticity coefficient of the agrochemical factor used in paddy production was calculated as 0.274 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficient of the pesticide factor was determined as 4.928, and the calculated value indicates that a small amount of pesticides is used in paddy production and the amount of pesticide used per unit area should be increased in order to reach the economic optimum.
In the study conducted by Kumar and Singh (2019), the elasticity coefficient of the pesticide factor in paddy production was calculated as 0.085 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 5%. In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficient of the pesticide factor was calculated as 0.16, which shows that the use of fertilizers in paddy production is high.
In the study conducted by Purba et al. (2020), the elasticity coefficients and significance levels of agricultural pesticides used in paddy production were found as follows: herbicide 0.097 (sign. 1%), insecticide 0.039 (sign. 10%), fungicide 0.082 (sign. 5%).In the study conducted by Sary et al. (2020), the elasticity coefficient of the pesticide factor was determined as -0.0228 (non sign.) in the "wet season" and 0.514 (sign.1%)in “dry season”. In the study, it was also found that the elasticity coefficient of the herbicide factor was 0.043 (sign. 5%) in “wet season” and as -0.016 (non sign.) in the "dry season".
In the study conducted by Ginting and Andari (2021), the pesticide factor in the estimation equation for paddy production was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. In the study conducted by Juliatmaja et al. (2021), the elasticity coefficient of pesticide was -8.758, and the calculated value was found to be statistically insignificant.
In the study conducted by Lone et al. (2021), agricultural pesticides and chemical fertilizers were evaluated as a single factor, and the elasticity coefficient of this factor was determined as 0.360 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. The marginal efficiency coefficient of the factor was determined as 2.24, and this calculated value shows that the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in paddy production is low and should be increased.
In the study conducted by Billah (2022), the elasticity coefficient regarding the cost of pesticides in the paddy production estimation equation was -0.07 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 10%. In the study conducted by Lamani and Thimmaiah (2022), the elasticity coefficient for the cost of pesticides in the paddy production estimation equation was calculated as 0.085 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficient of pesticide cost in paddy production was calculated as 0.16 and this value shows that excessive levels of pesticides are used in paddy production and that the amount of agricultural pesticides used per unit area should be reduced in order to reach the economic optimum level in resource use.
In the research conducted with 337 producers in Nigeria by Adewumi et al. (2023), the elasticity coefficient of the herbicide factor in the estimation equation for paddy production in enterprises using UDP Technology was 0.46 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. The elasticity coefficient for the agrochemical factor in the estimation equation for paddy production in enterprises that do not use UDP Technology was 0.656 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%.
In the research conducted by Djafar et al. (2023), the elasticity coefficient of the pesticide factor was determined as 0.007. The amount of pesticide use, whose marginal efficiency coefficient is determined as 10.95, should be increased in order to reach the economic optimum level.
In the study conducted by Laksono et al.(2023), the elasticity coefficient of the pesticides factor in paddy production was determined as negative (-0.127), and the determined value negatively affects the amount of paddy production. In the study conducted by Raj et al. (2023), the elasticity coefficient of the agrochemical factor in the paddy production estimation equation was determined as 0.383 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficient of pesticides was determined as 1.67 for salt water unaffected farmers and 2.23 for only salt water affected farmers, and both values indicate that the pesticide factor is used less in paddy production and should be increased.
In the study conducted by Sefrianti et al. (2023), the elasticity coefficient of the pesticide factor in paddy production was calculated as 0.054 and was found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. In the study conducted in India by Singh et al. (2023), the effect of input costs on paddy production value in paddy production was analyzed with the help of production function. In the study, the elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide was calculated as -0.271 (for tribal), 0.188 (for non-tribal), and both coefficients were found to be significant at the level of statistical significance at the level of 5%. The marginal efficiency coefficient calculated for the agricultural pesticide was determined as 0.044.
In the research conducted with 43 producers in Indonesia by Susvadi et al. (2023), the efficiency of input use in paddy production was analyzed using the production function. The elasticity coefficient of spontaneous pesticide in the estimation equation was determined as -0.014 and for furadan pesticide it was determined as -0.226, and all of the coefficients of the factors were not found to be statistically significant. In the study conducted by Yüzbaşioğlu and Abaci (2023) in Türkiye, the production elasticity coefficient of the agricultural pesticide factor in the production equation was -0.239 and it was found to be statistically insignificant.
In the study conducted by Bhatt et al.(2024), the elasticity coefficient and significance level of the pesticide factor in paddy production was calculated as 0.034 (sign. 1%) for the main season rice and as 0.355 for spring rice (sign. 1%).
The variety of pesticides used in agricultural control in rice production and their effects on the amount of production may vary from country to country. In some countries, the use of pesticides in the fight against weeds is widespread, while in other countries, the fight against diseases and pests may come to the fore. When the studies on the subject are examined, it is understood that the resource composition used in paddy production differs in each country.
As a result of the research, the elasticity coefficients of fungicide (0.535) and herbicide (0.324) in the estimation equation were found to be statistically significant at the level of 1% and insecticide at the level of 5%. These calculated values are similar to other studies in which the pesticide variable is statistically significant in the paddy production function (Semerci, 1998; Nimoh et al., 2012; Adedoyin et al., 2016; Abiola et al., 2016; Ida and Azhar, 2018; Pudaka et al., 2018; Adewumi et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2023; Bhatt et al., 2024).
In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficients of the factors in paddy production were determined as 1.24 USD for fungicide, as 1.12 USD for insecticide and as 0.13 USD for herbicide. According to these values, every 1 USD increase in agricultural pesticides increases the marginal product value by 1.24 USD in fungicide and 1.12 USD in insecticide drugs, however a 1 USD increase in herbicide causes a decrease of 0.13 USD in product value. The results of the research show that the use of fungicides and insecticides could be increased in paddy production, but the use of herbicides must be reduced.
In the study, the marginal efficiency coefficients of fungicides and insecticides were found to be above "1". These values show similarities with the values determined by Abiola et al. (2016) [1.12 for pesticide and 1.53 for herbicide] and Ida and Azhar (2018) [6.04]. However, in the research conducted by Singh et al. (2023), the marginal efficiency coefficient of the pesticide factor was determined as 0.044, and the calculated value shows that agricultural pesticides are overused in paddy production and should be reduced.
In general, the factors of agricultural pesticides included in the estimation equations prepared for paddy production may vary according to the agricultural production structure in the regions or countries where the production is made. For instance, since weeds are predominantly dealt with in paddy production in Türkiye, herbicides constitute approximately 80% of the amount of pesticides used per unit area. In other countries, agricultural control practices can be concentrated in the form of combating against pests or diseases.
Paddy, or rice in its processed form, is one of the agricultural products that has an essential place in human nutrition. Asian countries such as India, China, Bangladesh and Indonesia are at the forefront of paddy production, consumption and trade. With the effect of the support policies implemented in Türkiye in recent years, it has achieved significant increases in yield value. However, the country's self-sufficiency rate in rice production is around 80%.
The primary data used in this study were obtained from 74 agricultural enterprises determined by the Stratified Sampling Method. In the research, the relationship between the amount of paddy production and herbicides, fungicides and pesticides in the insecticide group used in production was analyzed with the help of production function.
In the recent research, the labor cost of the producers in the application of agricultural pesticides in paddy production was calculated as 5.94 USD da-1, the cost of agricultural pesticides as 16.63 USD da-1, and the cost of agricultural pesticides and spraying was calculated as 22.57 USD da-1. The total of variable costs in paddy production is 208.86 USD da-1 and the share of pesticides and spraying in variable costs has been calculated as 10.80%. The product cost in paddy production is 290.62 USD da-1 and the share of agricultural pesticide cost and total cost of spraying labor has been determined as 7.76%.
For agricultural control practices carried out within the scope of crop production activities carried out in Türkiye, there has been no financial support payment. The issue of monetary support for agricultural control practices, which have a significant share in the cost of paddy production, must be re-evaluated within the scope of Türkiye's policies to increase agricultural production and increase producer income.
In this study, the use of agricultural pesticides per unit area in paddy production has been calculated as 0.909 lt da-1 herbicides, 0.181 lt da-1 fungicides and 0.093 lt da-1 insecticides. According to these values, the amount of agricultural pesticide use per unit area is 1.183 lt da-1.
In the function created for paddy production in the study; fungicides (X1) and herbicides (X2) were found to be statistically significant at the probability level of 1% and insecticides at the probability level of 5%, and the sum of the production elasticity coefficients of agricultural pesticides (∑βi 1.064), which are effective on the production amount, has provides an increasing return to the scale. When the amount of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides used in paddy production is increased by 1%, it is possible that the production amount will increase by a little over 1%.
Among the variables in the estimation equation, the marginal efficacy coefficient of fungicides and insecticides was found to be above "1". However, the research carried out has shown that no agricultural pesticide group has been used at the economic optimum level in paddy production. Considering the marginal efficiency coefficients obtained as a result of the research, the amount of use of fungicides and insecticides per unit area should be increased in order to reach the economic optimum level, yet the use of herbicides should be reduced. The findings of the research revealed that the factors used within the scope of agricultural control in paddy production were not used rationally.
Original paper, i.e. Figures, Tables, References, and Authors' Contacts available at http://rjoas.com/issue-2025-06/article_03.pdf