Progress in optics
Thanks to the rediscovery of ancient works, or the discovery of the writings of Arab scholars, some sciences experienced great growth. This was the case with the optics. One of its applications would change the lives of many people: glasses. The first glasses are called vesicles, derived from beryl, the transparent gemstone then used for lenses. They had no branches, but the lens frames pivoted and pinched the nose to fix themselves. It is likely that the use of concave and convex lenses, which increased the possibilities of the human eye, is much older. Didn't Emperor Nero use skillfully cut precious stones as magnifying glasses? Advances in optics also applied to navigation, and later to sky observation.
The first "printed" images
Culture has always been the business of a few privileged people. Despite the efforts of the Church and enlightened rulers, the learning of reading and writing was reserved for the privileged classes. It was understood that others, peasants, craftsmen, did not need it. In addition, the very high cost of the manuscripts and their limited number limited the dissemination of the instruction. Two inventions were about to begin to change this. The technique of wood engraving first, or xylography, a process already known in China: an image carved into the wood and inked left a clear imprint on a sheet of paper. And the appearance of paper in the 14th century allowed the replacement of scrolls to be an even more important step forward. Thus, drawn images illustrating scenes from the Bible were spread everywhere: they were called the "Bible of the poor", those who, not being able to read, were content to look at the illustrations.
The birth of chemistry
The alchemists of the Middle Ages were looking for the substance, or philosopher's stone, that would have turned into gold any ordinary material. We now know that this is possible in theory, thanks to atomic physics, but impossible in practice. Medieval alchemists, however, carried out thousands of experiments, often for more mystical than scientific purposes, with the most disparate materials, and then carefully recorded the results of their observations. If they did not discover the philosopher's stone, they were able to know, through experience, the reactions of almost all substances and thus laid the foundations of chemistry.
The external heritage
Gunpowder: The Chinese, inventors of gunpowder, used it to fire fireworks at their parties or to send out light messages at night. It is not known where and how the powder was introduced and "reinvented" in Europe. When its use spread in the 14th century, its experimentation was limited to the battlefields. Thus were born the first cannons, which projected, with a very approximate precision of fire, stone balls on enemy armies or against the thick walls of castles that became obsolete.
The invention of zero: The mathematical sciences also underwent a remarkable evolution in the Middle Ages. It is perhaps in these areas that progress has been most significant. Among the many innovations, we can recall the introduction of Arabic numerals, the very ones we use: in reality, they were Indian numerals transmitted to Europeans by Arabs. A figure that counts for nothing, zero, is even more important, and considerably increased the possibilities of counting. Merchant accounting improved and became more accurate.
The first industries
The first textile industry: The textile industry was the basis of the enormous development that Europe would experience a few centuries later. The art of transforming sheep's wool or flax stalk into fibers, spinning them into continuous yarns and weaving them into a fabric is an activity that involves elementary technology. It is most probably for this reason that this work was the first to be almost entirely "industrialized". The rotary, rectilinear or alternating movements that were machine printed by the watermill wheel were well suited to the repeated work of the spinning mill.
The birth of industries: After the year 1000, the situation was, schematically, as follows: thanks to changes in political and social conditions, as well as technical innovations, agriculture produced, in addition to what was necessary, surpluses, i.e. wealth that could be exchanged or sold. The diffusion of the mills provided sufficient energy to operate machines performing a series of tasks. Metalworking techniques were thus renewed, thanks to the additional energy provided by the mills. A water wheel and camshaft, for example, could easily drive huge bellows in a foundry. The air sent to the fire increased the temperature to degrees of fusion, in large quantities and at limited blows. Metallurgical activities then experienced a real boom.
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