В студенческие годы мы учились по В.Д. Аракину, откуда получали многочисленные задания, приятные и не очень, и так как этот учебник переживет многих, то я решила поделиться своими работами. Возможно, кому-то из студентов даже пригодится. Мне потребовалось очень много времени, чтобы найти и соединить с примерами все стилистические приемы, поэтому список получился внушительный.
Внимание! Дальше много английских букв!
the voice – the verbal aspect:
1) author’s voice – the individual writing style of an author, a combination of their common usage of syntax, diction, punctuation, character development, dialogue, etc., within a given body of text (or across several works).
2) character’s voice – a character’s voice is the voice of the main character how he views the world. It is a common narrative voice used with first and third person point of views, and author uses a conscious person as a narrator in the story. E. g. Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, is a very good example of a character’s voice, in which a character, Scout narrates the whole story.
point of view or the focus – the view aspect:
1) first-person narrative – повествование от первого лица (I, we)
2) second-person narrative – от второго лица (you). E. g. “Bright Lights, Big City” by Jay Mclnemey: “You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning.”
3) third-person narrative – от третьего лица (he, she, it, they, name)
4) omniscient author – всеведущий рассказчик
4.1) omniscient points of view – when a narrator has knowledge about all the characters in a narrative, it is omniscient or all-knowing point of view.
4.2) limited omniscient points of view – in limited omniscient point of view, a narrator has limited knowledge of just one character, leaving other major or minor characters. E. g. Rowling employs omniscient limited narrator in which readers see what Harry observes, and know what he feels and thinks. They, however, are unable to follow what Dursleys feel or think about Harry, though can clearly see what Harry thinks and feels about them.
4.3) objective – contains no references to thoughts or feelings; it only reports what can be seen and heard.
Represented speech There is also a device which coveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, his thoughts and feelings. This device is also termed represented speech. To distinguish between the two varieties of represented speech we call the representation of the actual utterance through the author's language "uttered represented speech", and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character unuttered or inner represented speech. E. g. For what is left the poet here? For Greeks a blush - for Greece a tear.
tone (of a story) – is the style in which it is written; the choice of words: abstract or concrete, bookish or colloquial.
E. g. Father: “We can’t go on vacation this summer.” Son: “Ok. Great! That’s what I expected.” – The son’s tone is sarcastic in the given response.
symbol – it may be a person, an object, an action that represents something else because of its association with it – it is a visible sign of something invisible. Symbolism is often used for foreshadowing. This might be a lone animal, like a bird, or storm clouds.
plot – an arrangement of meaningful events – sometimes a plot follows the chronological order of events, sometimes there are
flashback – jump back and forth in time;
foreshadowing предчувствие – jump forth in time. E. g. in the fairy tale, Little Red Riding Hood, the mother is concerned for her safety and that foreshadows the appearance of the big bad wolf.
exposition – a short presentation of time, place and characters of the story.
climax – a devise moment on which the fate of the characters and the final action depend.
denouement [deɪ'nuːmɔŋ] развязка –'the untying of a knit'.
narration – dynamic, it gives a continuous account of events.
description – static, it is a verbal portrait of an object, person or scene: detailed and direst or impressionistic, giving few but striking details.
the dialogue – through it the characters are better portrayed, brings the action nearer to the reader.
interior monologue – renders the thoughts and feelings of a character.
composition – the interrelation between different components of a literary text.
setting – an environment or surrounding in which an event or story takes place. E. g. New York, America, in the year 1820; a lonely cottage on a mountain; social conditions; historical time; geographical locations; weather; immediate surroundings
round characters – complex and develop / change in the course of the story. It is the character with whom the audience can sympathize, associate or relate to, as he seems a character they might have seen in their real lives. E. g. in the novel The Great Gatsby, Scott Fitzgerald has introduced a complex and round character, Gatsby, who is a tragic hero. He is a man of great mystery, because no one knows how he becomes rich. Readers can notice his different sides.
flat characters – is a type of character that does not change too much from the start of the narrative to its end. The role of flat characters is to support the main character.
a foil character – a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character with the objective to highlight the traits особенность of the other character. E. g. Milton’s “Paradise Lost Book I” is based on the comparison of two contrasting characters: God and Satan. Satan appears as a foil to God. The negative traits of Satan and the positive traits of God are frequently compared.
the conflict – is a literary element that involves a struggle борьба between two opposing forces usually a protagonist and an antagonist:
1) external – is a struggle that takes place between the main character and some outside forces:
1.1) Character vs. Character – occurs when a character struggles against other characters in the story. E. g. in Harry Potter series. Harry engages himself in a battle against Harry Lord Voldemort.
1.2) Character vs. Society – occurs when the main character stands up to support his beliefs and struggles against the social forces, E. g. Sophocles’ “Antigone.”
1.3) Character vs. Nature – the protagonist struggle against the forces of nature or external environment, like in the short story, “To Build a Fire”, Jack London tells a story of an anonymous narrator and his dog, traveling through wilderness of Yukon Trail.
2) internal – is the struggle occurring within a character's mind. The dilemma posed by an internal conflict is usually some ethical or emotional question. E. g. whether or not to read a forbidden book.
protagonist – is the central character or leading figure in poetry, narrative, novel or any other story
antagonist – is a character or a group of characters which stand in opposition to the protagonist or the main character.
direct characterization – when the author describes the character himself, or makes another do it.
indirect characterization – when the author shows the character in action, and lets the reader judge for himself.
the theme – is whatever general idea or insight the entire story reveals: unmistakable or obvious. E. g. Love and friendship are frequently occurring themes in literature: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare. The theme of war: War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy. Crime and mystery are utilized in detective novels: Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle. Revenge месть: The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas.
1) Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices
1.1) Alliteration [əˌlɪtə'reɪʃ(ə)n] – is the repetition of similar consonant in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words. E. g. Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before. (E.A. Poe)
1.2) Assonance ['æsənən(t)s] – a phonetic stylistic device; it is the agreement of vowel sounds. E. g. One’s upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary.
1.3) Onomatopoeia [ˌɔnəˌmætə'piːə] – a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature. E. g. ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, mew, ping-pong, etc.
1.4) Rhyme [raɪm] – the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. E. g. flesh – fresh – press; bottom – forgot’em – shot him.
2) Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices
2.1) Metaphor – перенос названия и свойств одного объекта на другой по принципу их сходства.
E. g. floods of tears – потоки слез; a storm of indignation – шторм негодования.
2.2) Metonymy – переименование; замещение одного слова другим. E. g. The hall applauded. – Зал приветствовал.
2.3) Irony – two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. E. g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day).
2.4) Zeugma ['zjuːgmə] – combination of one polysemantic word with 2 or several other words in succession. E. g. She opened the door and her heart to the homeless boy.
2.5) The pun парономазия – the interaction взаимодействие of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase. E. g. Planet of the Grapes (планета винограда) – название винного магазина очень напоминает Planet of the Apes (планета обезьян)
2.6) Epithet ['epɪθet] – определение при слове, выражающее авторское восприятие. E. g. dark forest, careful attention; a shadow of a smile; smiling sun, voiceless sounds.
2.7) Oxymoron [ˌɔksɪ'mɔːrɔn] – is a combination of two words in which the meaning is opposite in sense. E. g. speaking silence, cold fire, living death.
2.8) Antonomasia [ˌantənəˈmeɪzɪə] – the result of interaction between logical and nominal meaning of a wordж вместо собственного имени ставится описательное выражение. E. g. Her husband is an Othello. I agree with you Mr. Logic. My Dear Simplicity. простота
2.9) Simile ['sɪmɪlɪ] – the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind, used to make a description more emphatic or vivid. E. g. as brave as a lion.
2.10) Periphrasis – косвенное выражение одного понятия при помощи другого, его упоминание путем не прямого называния, а описания. E. g. The big man upstairs hears your prayers. – Большой человек наверху слышит твои молитвы (под "большим человеком" подразумевается Бог).
2.11) Euphemism ['juːfəmɪz(ə)m] – is used to avoid some unpleasant things, or taboo things. E. g. To pass away – to die.
2.12) Hyperbole [haɪ'pɜːb(ə)lɪ] – exaggeration; преувеличение, нацеленное на усиление смысла и эмоциональности высказывания. E. g. A thousand pardons, scared to death, immensely obliged. I have told you it a thousand times. – Я говорил тебе это тысячу раз.
2.13) Cliché ['kliːʃeɪ] – an expression that has become hackneyed and trite заезженно и банально. E. g. Never say never. You can't get blood of a stone.
2.14) Proverb пословица – are expressions of culture that are passed from generation to generation. E. g. Out of sight, out of mind.
2.15) Epigram – is a short clever amusing saying or poem. E. g. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
2.16) Quotation – is a phrase or sentence taken from a work of literature or other piece of writing and repeated in order to prove a point or support an idea. They are marked graphically: by inverted commas: dashes, italics.
2.17) Allusion – is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological fact. E. g. “I was surprised his nose was not growing like Pinocchio’s.” This refers to the story of Pinocchio, where his nose grew whenever he told a lie.
3) Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices
3.1) Ellipsis [ɪ'lɪpsɪs] – intentional missing of words, which are unessential for meaning; намеренный пропуск слов, несущественных для смысла. E. g. I went to Oxford as one goes into exile; she to London.
3.2) Aposiopesis [ˌæpəzaɪəˈpiːsɪs] – sudden stop of the sentence, break the syntactical structure of sentence, abundance of the heart, the oscillation of the speaker. E. g. You just come home, or I’ll … (the implication is a threat)
3.3.) Rhetorical question – question which does not require a direct answer; an affirmative or negative statement which only assumes the form of a question. E. g. What man has done of man?
3.4) Litotes [laɪ'təutiːz] – used to weaken the positive characteristics of a thing or phenomenon; преуменьшение размера или значения объекта, противоположна гиперболе. E. g. Her face isn't a bad one. У неё неплохое лицо (вместо "хорошее" или "красивое").
3.5) Parallelism or parallel constructions – similar arrangement of elements of speech. E. g. Arms were folded, tongues stilled, faces became angelic and demure, and feet were placed decorously side by side. "The cock is crowing. The stream is flowing."
3.6) Chiasmus [kaɪˈæzməs] Хиазм or reversed parallelism – inversion in the second part of the phrase. E. g. "He rose up and down she.", "The jail might have been,... the jail."
3.7) Climax ['klaɪmæks] (Gradation) – a structure in which every successive sentence or phrase is emotionally more expressive or logically more important or more explicit than the previous one; последовательное нагнетание или, наоборот, ослабление сравнений и образов. E. g. To live here in sight of all this, to be able to point it out to his friend, to talk of it, to possess it!
3.8) Anti-climax (Bathos ['beɪθɔs]) – something that is much less exciting or dramatic than it was expected to be: a dull or disappointing ending or result; предложение, части которого представляют ряд нисходящих по силе выражений. E. g. Всякий велик на своем месте: инженер, мастер, чернорабочий. Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everything expect the obvious. (O. Wilde)
3.9) Suspense – the intense feeling that an audience goes through while waiting for the outcome of certain events. E. g. Yes, despite the drawback of Miss Anderson’s village school, the dark old-fashioned building, the primitive sanitation, the scarcity of stock which made Anna’s Christmas cards all the more welcome, and the great range of age in each class, still Miss Anderson had one priceless advantage. (Miss Read)
3.10) Antithesis – a structure presenting two contrasting ideas in a close neighborhood; сопоставление противоположных по смыслу образов и понятий либо противоположных эмоций, чувств и переживаний героя или автора. E. g. They speak like saints and act like devils. Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fiery, age is frosty. – Молодость прекрасна, старость одинока, молодость пламенна, старость морозна.
3.11) Repetition – repeating of words, a group of words, or a whole sentence. E.g. Scrooge went to bed again, and thought, and thought, and over and over and over."
3.12) Anaphora – repetition of words at the beginning of sentences; повторение слов в начале каждой строки. E. g. "Farewell to the mountains...Farewell to the straits..."
3.13) Epiphora [ɪˈpɪf(ə)rə] – opposite to Anaphora, repetition of words in the end of sentences. E. g. "...life as a cornet of dragoons, and found it a bore;...train of an English minister abroad, and found it a bore."
3.14) Anadiplosis or catch repetition – the repetition of the same unit (word or phrase) at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the following sentence; использование последних слов предыдущего предложения в качестве начальных слов следующего. E. g. He (old Jolyon) would not run with the hare and hunt with the hounds, and so to his son he said good-bye. That good-bye lasted until now. (J. Galsworthy)
3.15) Framing or ring repetition – repeated elements – the initials and the final. E. g. You have made a nice mess, you have...
3.16) Nominative sentences – nominal sentence, where main part of the sentence appears in Nominative case; односоставные предложения, главный член которых выражается существительным в И.п. E. g. "Вот и все. Тень и тишина." "London. Fog everywhere. Dusk – of a summer night."
3.17) Asyndeton [æˈsɪndɪtən] Асиндетон – absence of conjunctions, connection of sentence based on lexical meaning; бессоюзие. E. g. "Пришел, увидел, победил.", "Ночь, улица, фонарь, аптека." (Блок)
Omission "and": "...who cheated you, (and) who meant to pray you.", "The facts are before you. (And) I ask you for your judgment." Omission "as": "...as we hold the rest of mankind, (as) Enemies in war, (and) in Piece Friends."
3.18) Polysyndeton [ˌpɒlɪˈsɪndɪtən] – is the use of several conjunctions in close succession последовательность; многосоюзие. E. g. "And the rain..., and the floors, and the winds..."
3.19) Prolepsis [prəʊˈlɛpsɪs] – repetition of the noun subject in the form of a personal noun. E. g. "Miss Webster, she slept...", "Bolivar, he's plenty tired, and he can't...", "I know the like of you are, I do."
3.20) Stylistic inversion – any kind of deviation ([ˌdiːvɪˈeɪʃ(ə)n] отклонение) from the usual order of words in the sentence. E. g. "They slid down – Down they slid.", "Сначала очень была огорчена."
3.21) Detachment [dɪˈtætʃmənt] Обособление – secondary parts of speech are isolated from parts of speech by comma and dash; части высказываний изолированы от главных членов предложения (,) и (–). E. g. "...her at the stores – nice and dappled.", "Talent, Mr. Micawber has, capital, Mr. Micawber has not."
3.22) Paranthesis [pəˈrɛnθɪsɪs] Парантеза (Introductory words Вводные слова) – insert one phrase inside another without grammatical connections by dash or parenthesis зд. "круглые скобки"; вставка одной фразы внутрь другой без грамматической связи, выделяется "– ... –" или "(...)" E. g. "...by the thought (what devil's whisper?)...", "Here is a long passage – what an enormous prospective I make of it! – leading from..."
4) Graphical expressive means and stylistic devices
4.1) Punctuation – used in writing to show the stress, rhythm and tone of the spoken word. It also aims at clarifying the meaning of sentences. There are such common marks of punctuation: the full stop [ . ], the comma [ , ], the colon [ : ], the semicolon [ ; ], brackets [( )], dash [ - ], hyphen [ – ], the exclamation mark [ ! ], the oblique stroke [ / ], the iterrogative (question) mark [ ? ], inverted commas (quotation marks) [" "], suspension marks [...], the apostrophe [ ‘ ].
E. g. And there – drinking at the bar – was – Robert!
4.2) Orthography or spelling (Graphon) – the way in which the words of a language are spelled. E. g. Zis man? Gimme a chance!
4.3) Change of type – is a rather common means of indicating stress and other changes in prosodic elements, includes: E. g. italics, bold type, h-y-p-h-e-n-a-t-i-o-n, s p a c i n g o u t, mmmmmultiplication and CAPITALIZATION; la-a-arge…; I des-pise you! Allll aboarrrrd!
